The Russian Revolution and the creation of the Soviet Union

Grade 10 Social Studies Worksheet - Challenge Me

Circle the best answer.

1. Read this first

   Use this

   Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953. Card B (today): “The Causes of Ukrainian Famine Mortality, 1932–33”. Who made it: three economists writing for the National Bureau of Economic Research. For whom: other economists and historians. Why: to estimate the causes and size of the famine. Summary in our words, not a quotation: Estimates of total famine deaths for the whole Soviet Union range from 5 million to 10.8 million. Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. The paper says the causes are debated by historians. Context (what else was happening): A working paper, posted in 2021 and revised in 2022. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It is a statistical paper; it does not settle the debate over intent. Card C (today): “Holodomor”. Who made it: the editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. For whom: general readers. Why: to explain the Holodomor. Summary in our words, not a quotation: Stalin's campaign of collectivization and grain requisition led to catastrophe. Between 1931 and 1934 at least 5 million people lost their lives to hunger across the Soviet Union, among them at least 3.9 million Ukrainians, by one study of Ukrainian demographers. Context (what else was happening): An encyclopedia entry, written today. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It gives a minimum, and cites one study for the Ukrainian count.

2. 1.

   Card B gives famine deaths as 5 million to 10.8 million; card C says at least 5 million. Ari reconciles the cards. How?

   • Card B is right and card C wrong, since the larger number in the range must be the true count
   • Both give counts from the time, so the difference of 5.8 million is a mistake made by one writer
   • They conflict, since card C says 5 million and card B says up to 10.8 million, so one is wrong
   • Card C's minimum matches the low end of card B's range; estimates differ in method

3. Use this

   Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953. Card C (today): “Holodomor”. Who made it: the editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. For whom: general readers. Why: to explain the Holodomor. Summary in our words, not a quotation: Stalin's campaign of collectivization and grain requisition led to catastrophe. Between 1931 and 1934 at least 5 million people lost their lives to hunger across the Soviet Union, among them at least 3.9 million Ukrainians, by one study of Ukrainian demographers. Context (what else was happening): An encyclopedia entry, written today. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It gives a minimum, and cites one study for the Ukrainian count. Card D (today): “Ukrainian Famine”. Who made it: historians at the Library of Congress. For whom: visitors to an online exhibit. Why: to explain the famine in Ukraine. Summary in our words, not a quotation: The famine of 1932–33 in Ukraine, the northern Caucasus and the lower Volga area was the result of Stalin's forced collectivization. The heaviest losses were in Ukraine. In 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent. Context (what else was happening): Written today, from the library's collections of Russian archives. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It names the cause the library accepts; it does not settle the debate over intent.

4. 2.

   Card C: at least 3.9 million Ukrainians; card D: heaviest losses in Ukraine, quotas raised 44 percent in 1932. What do they show together, Bo?

   • The quota rise was meant to starve Ukraine, since Ukraine's losses were the heaviest of any region
   • They show nothing together, since a quota percentage and a death count are different kinds of figure
   • The quota rise caused 3.9 million deaths exactly, since it came in 1932 and the famine followed
   • Ukraine's losses were heaviest and the quota rise fits, but intent is not shown

5. Use this

   Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953. Card A (today): “Internal Workings of the Soviet Union”. Who made it: historians at the Library of Congress. For whom: visitors to an online exhibit. Why: to show how the Soviet state worked. Summary in our words, not a quotation: The secret police was called the Cheka from December 1917, the GPU from 1922 and the NKVD from 1934. Stalin's First Five-Year Plan, adopted in 1928, called for rapid industrialization and large state collective farms. Forced collectivization caused the famine of 1932–33. The Great Terror of 1936–1938 was at its peak in 1937–38. Context (what else was happening): Written today, from the library's collections of Russian archives. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It is an exhibit summary; it gives few numbers for the Terror. Card C (today): “Holodomor”. Who made it: the editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. For whom: general readers. Why: to explain the Holodomor. Summary in our words, not a quotation: Stalin's campaign of collectivization and grain requisition led to catastrophe. Between 1931 and 1934 at least 5 million people lost their lives to hunger across the Soviet Union, among them at least 3.9 million Ukrainians, by one study of Ukrainian demographers. Context (what else was happening): An encyclopedia entry, written today. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It gives a minimum, and cites one study for the Ukrainian count. Card D (today): “Ukrainian Famine”. Who made it: historians at the Library of Congress. For whom: visitors to an online exhibit. Why: to explain the famine in Ukraine. Summary in our words, not a quotation: The famine of 1932–33 in Ukraine, the northern Caucasus and the lower Volga area was the result of Stalin's forced collectivization. The heaviest losses were in Ukraine. In 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent. Context (what else was happening): Written today, from the library's collections of Russian archives. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It names the cause the library accepts; it does not settle the debate over intent.

6. 3.

   A student says “The famine was an accident of bad weather.” Which card best counters this, and what does it leave open, Esme?

   • Card C, since a minimum of 5 million deaths shows the famine could not have been an accident
   • No card, since a source written today cannot tell causes from the 1930s
   • Card A, since the Great Terror of 1936–38 shows leaders caused the famine on purpose
   • Card D names forced collectivization as the cause; other factors are not ruled out

7. Use this

   Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953. Card A (today): “Internal Workings of the Soviet Union”. Who made it: historians at the Library of Congress. For whom: visitors to an online exhibit. Why: to show how the Soviet state worked. Summary in our words, not a quotation: The secret police was called the Cheka from December 1917, the GPU from 1922 and the NKVD from 1934. Stalin's First Five-Year Plan, adopted in 1928, called for rapid industrialization and large state collective farms. Forced collectivization caused the famine of 1932–33. The Great Terror of 1936–1938 was at its peak in 1937–38. Context (what else was happening): Written today, from the library's collections of Russian archives. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It is an exhibit summary; it gives few numbers for the Terror. Reading X (invented for this sheet): “Stalin's terror grew out of Lenin's system. The one-party state, the secret police and the party's rule over the law were already in place in 1922.” Reading Y (invented for this sheet): “Stalin's rule was a break. Lenin's state used repression, but the scale of collectivization and the Great Terror came from Stalin's own choices after 1928.”

8. 4.

   Which fact in card A best supports X, the reading that Stalin's terror grew from Lenin's system, Jun?

   • The famine of 1932–33, since card A says forced collectivization caused it and the party planned collectivization
   • The First Five-Year Plan of 1928, since a plan set from the top shows the system Lenin built
   • The secret police continued from the Cheka (1917) to the NKVD (1934)
   • The Great Terror's peak in 1937–38, since it shows how Lenin's system was bound to end once Stalin led it

9. Use this

   Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953. Reading X (invented for this sheet): “Stalin's terror grew out of Lenin's system. The one-party state, the secret police and the party's rule over the law were already in place in 1922.” Reading Y (invented for this sheet): “Stalin's rule was a break. Lenin's state used repression, but the scale of collectivization and the Great Terror came from Stalin's own choices after 1928.”

10. 5.

    Which fact in the chart best supports Y, the reading that Stalin's rule was a break, Kira?

    • Policies after 1928 were new in scale, such as deporting about a million kulak households
    • Stalin's rule until 1953, since a long rule shows he was different from Lenin and so broke with Lenin's methods
    • The party's rule over the plan, since a party that sets policy from the top breaks from the past
    • The Cheka's founding in 1917, since it shows the secret police began before Stalin took power

11. Use this

    Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953. Card D (today): “Ukrainian Famine”. Who made it: historians at the Library of Congress. For whom: visitors to an online exhibit. Why: to explain the famine in Ukraine. Summary in our words, not a quotation: The famine of 1932–33 in Ukraine, the northern Caucasus and the lower Volga area was the result of Stalin's forced collectivization. The heaviest losses were in Ukraine. In 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent. Context (what else was happening): Written today, from the library's collections of Russian archives. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It names the cause the library accepts; it does not settle the debate over intent. Card B (today): “The Causes of Ukrainian Famine Mortality, 1932–33”. Who made it: three economists writing for the National Bureau of Economic Research. For whom: other economists and historians. Why: to estimate the causes and size of the famine. Summary in our words, not a quotation: Estimates of total famine deaths for the whole Soviet Union range from 5 million to 10.8 million. Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. The paper says the causes are debated by historians. Context (what else was happening): A working paper, posted in 2021 and revised in 2022. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It is a statistical paper; it does not settle the debate over intent.

12. 6.

    A student says “The 44 percent quota rise proves Stalin meant to starve Ukraine.” Milo tests it. What is the best reply?

    • It shows nothing, since a quota is a number and cannot connect to anyone's decisions about the harvest
    • It fits the famine's severity in Ukraine but not intent; historians debate the causes
    • It shows intent, since a quota raised in 1932 led to the heaviest losses in Ukraine
    • It is settled, since the library that wrote card D has examined the archives and named the cause

13. Use this

    Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953. Card B (today): “The Causes of Ukrainian Famine Mortality, 1932–33”. Who made it: three economists writing for the National Bureau of Economic Research. For whom: other economists and historians. Why: to estimate the causes and size of the famine. Summary in our words, not a quotation: Estimates of total famine deaths for the whole Soviet Union range from 5 million to 10.8 million. Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. The paper says the causes are debated by historians. Context (what else was happening): A working paper, posted in 2021 and revised in 2022. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It is a statistical paper; it does not settle the debate over intent. Card C (today): “Holodomor”. Who made it: the editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. For whom: general readers. Why: to explain the Holodomor. Summary in our words, not a quotation: Stalin's campaign of collectivization and grain requisition led to catastrophe. Between 1931 and 1934 at least 5 million people lost their lives to hunger across the Soviet Union, among them at least 3.9 million Ukrainians, by one study of Ukrainian demographers. Context (what else was happening): An encyclopedia entry, written today. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It gives a minimum, and cites one study for the Ukrainian count.

14. 7.

    A student says “Five million people lost their lives in the famine.” Pia tests the claim against cards B and C. What is the best reply?

    • Five million is the low end of a range up to 10.8 million
    • Wrong: the two sources disagree, so no number can be used for the famine
    • Right: Britannica says at least 5 million, so five million is the exact toll
    • Wrong: the true toll is 10.8 million, since that is the largest number in the range

15. Use this

    Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953.

16. 8.

    Ren compares the stated goal and the cost for collectivization (row 2). What does the comparison show?

    • The goal was large farms and city grain; the cost column shows what the policy did to families
    • That the goal was a cover story, since a plan with such costs cannot have meant what it said
    • That the goal was reached, since the chart says 97 percent of households were collectivized by 1940
    • That the cost was the goal, since a plan that deports a million households must have aimed to

17. Use this

    Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953. Card A (today): “Internal Workings of the Soviet Union”. Who made it: historians at the Library of Congress. For whom: visitors to an online exhibit. Why: to show how the Soviet state worked. Summary in our words, not a quotation: The secret police was called the Cheka from December 1917, the GPU from 1922 and the NKVD from 1934. Stalin's First Five-Year Plan, adopted in 1928, called for rapid industrialization and large state collective farms. Forced collectivization caused the famine of 1932–33. The Great Terror of 1936–1938 was at its peak in 1937–38. Context (what else was happening): Written today, from the library's collections of Russian archives. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It is an exhibit summary; it gives few numbers for the Terror.

18. 9.

    Row 3 gives no goal for the famine; row 4 gives one for the Terror. Tala asks what the difference suggests.

    • The Terror succeeded, since the chart's stated goal of total control was reached by 1938
    • The famine was part of the Terror, since both fall in the 1930s and both are in the chart
    • The famine followed from collectivization; the Terror had a stated aim
    • The famine was an accident, since the chart gives no goal for it and a policy needs a goal

19. Use this

    Compare chart “Stalin's Soviet Union, 1928 to 1939”. Columns: Policy; Stated goal; How it was carried out; Cost to people. Row 1, First Five-Year Plan, adopted 1928: Stated goal: rapid industrialization, with heavy industry first; How it was carried out: set by the party from the top; Cost to people: workers and peasants paid for the speed of change. Row 2, Forced collectivization, from 1929: Stated goal: large state farms and grain for the growing cities; How it was carried out: about one million kulak households, some five million people, were deported; Cost to people: by 1940 about 97 percent of peasant households were collectivized. Row 3, Famine of 1932 to 1933: Stated goal: none, it followed from collectivization; How it was carried out: in 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent; Cost to people: estimates for the whole Soviet Union run from 5 to 10.8 million deaths; sources differ. Row 4, Great Terror, 1936 to 1938: Stated goal: to secure Stalin's total control; How it was carried out: show trials and the NKVD secret police; Cost to people: millions of innocent people were arrested, sent to labor camps or put to death. Below the chart: Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. Stalin ruled until his death in 1953. Card B (today): “The Causes of Ukrainian Famine Mortality, 1932–33”. Who made it: three economists writing for the National Bureau of Economic Research. For whom: other economists and historians. Why: to estimate the causes and size of the famine. Summary in our words, not a quotation: Estimates of total famine deaths for the whole Soviet Union range from 5 million to 10.8 million. Ukrainians call the famine Holodomor. The paper says the causes are debated by historians. Context (what else was happening): A working paper, posted in 2021 and revised in 2022. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It is a statistical paper; it does not settle the debate over intent. Card C (today): “Holodomor”. Who made it: the editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. For whom: general readers. Why: to explain the Holodomor. Summary in our words, not a quotation: Stalin's campaign of collectivization and grain requisition led to catastrophe. Between 1931 and 1934 at least 5 million people lost their lives to hunger across the Soviet Union, among them at least 3.9 million Ukrainians, by one study of Ukrainian demographers. Context (what else was happening): An encyclopedia entry, written today. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It gives a minimum, and cites one study for the Ukrainian count. Card D (today): “Ukrainian Famine”. Who made it: historians at the Library of Congress. For whom: visitors to an online exhibit. Why: to explain the famine in Ukraine. Summary in our words, not a quotation: The famine of 1932–33 in Ukraine, the northern Caucasus and the lower Volga area was the result of Stalin's forced collectivization. The heaviest losses were in Ukraine. In 1932 Stalin raised Ukraine's grain quotas by 44 percent. Context (what else was happening): Written today, from the library's collections of Russian archives. Limits (what this source cannot tell us): It names the cause the library accepts; it does not settle the debate over intent.

20. 10.

    Estimates for all of the USSR run from 5 to 10.8 million, while a study counts at least 3.9 million Ukrainians. Why give both, Zee?

    • Ukraine's losses were heaviest, so they are also counted apart; estimates differ by method
    • Two sources rarely agree, so each source gives its own figure and neither can be compared
    • Ukraine suffered the whole loss, so the two figures describe the same deaths in two ways
    • The Ukrainian count is exact and the Soviet-wide count is a guess, so they must be shown separately